cloaca maxima
"...for
700 years from the time of Tarquinius Priscus, the channels have remained
well-nigh impregnable." Pliny, Natural History, Book 36.
The Cloaca Maxima, or 'Great Sewer', was a long-term public infrastructure project in the ancient city of Rome, begun under the monarchy of Tarquinius Priscus, Rome's fifth king out of seven, around 600 BCE. The Republic would be founded in 509 BCE after a popular revolt.
According to Hopkins, the original design of the sewer was as an open-air channel and was built by the Etruscans (2007) , a people originally from the region north of Rome that includes modern day Tuscany. Hopkins suggests that the original channel brought together the fresh water of several streams and was dug through the space cleared for the Forum Romanum for more than 100 metres, bringing into question the original intention for the use of the water it provided (ibid.). An open-air channel dismisses the need to contain the stench of a sewer, while it would seem logical that an open public space like the Forum should have ready access to fresh water. From here the water gathered and was syphoned out to the Tiber River.
The construction of this drainage channel was important for the eventual spread of the settlement that originally began on the seven hills, overlooking the lowland below. The Tiber was prone to flooding each year, regularly inundating the lowland and making movement in Rome difficult. (ibid.) The ability of such a system to drain the floodwaters must have been evident, and this system allowed the conditions for the strong development of the city of Rome (Sura 2010), namely the availability of land free from flooding, easy movement between the settlements that had developed on the hills and therefore trade and communication between their inhabitants, and according to Sura, a decline in water-borne illnesses such as malaria and improved hygiene as a result of the channel's propensity to remove fecal matter. (ibid.) This makes the Cloaca Maxima great, not just in monumental terms, but in terms of allowing the conditions for social and cultural development as well. One could even argue that without the Cloaca Maxima there could have been no Roman Empire.
Over time, Roman engineers saw fit to add and extend sections, alter and repair broken down sections, resulting in what Hopkins has described as "...a patchwork of Roman building techniques." (2007) They paved over the open channel, closing in its flowing waters. As well, he goes on to describe how in the area of the Imperial fora (forums built during the eras of various emperors) "...canals exhibit archaic, mid-republican, Julian, Augustan, early Flavian and Domitianic masonries." (ibid.), emphasising the nature of this 'patchwork'. Hopkins suggests that the mid-republican section of the cloaca was built when the Basilica Aemilia was built over an older section. (ibid.) The channel was redirected around the building to enable its structural integrity. (ibid.) Two cloacae are reported to have run from the area of the Campus Martius, so named because of its propensity to flood, literally transforming into a marsh. These are also mid-republican and helped drain the area where the Pantheon and the Porticus Octavia would later be built. (ibid.) Republican sections of the cloaca also helped drain the area around the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Castor & Pollux, and along the Via Sacra before feeding into the main section near the Basilica Aemilia. (ibid.)
The scale of the work, in its time, was extremely significant for the message of power and prestige it could convey, as well as the social and cultural implications it would have for further development of the city. The work to begin construction was arduous. The masonry blocks used to line the structure were massive, making the structure itself monumental. Strabo tells us that the engineers "...have in some places left enough room for wagons loaded with hay to pass through them." (5.3) If we believe Pliny the Elder, its initial construction was as much a show of the power of Tarquinius Priscus within Rome as its monumental scale would show Roman power to be to outsiders. In using commoners to build the structure, he says that because "...the citizens were seeking to escape from their exhaustion by committing suicide wholesale, the king... crucified the bodies of all who had died by their own hands, leaving them to be gazed at by their fellow citizens and also torn to pieces by beasts and birds of prey." (Book 36) So, initially at least, the construction of the cloaca can be seen to have been a symbol of monarchical strength within Rome. Hopkins suggests that there were examples of such canals elsewhere, built by people that the Romans would have been in contact with. These people had not used monumental masonry blocks, showing therefore that the Romans did not need to. The cloaca could then be seen to have been constructed in such a way simply to demonstrate the power of Rome and its monarchy. (2007) By Republican times it could be seen as a testament to the strength of the Roman people and their ability to accomplish great feats of engineering as a people. Its practical advantage of draining water away from the Forum Romanum allowed the development of a vibrant city market with political and judicial functions that would also facilitate the social and cultural functions of the patron-client relationship. In other words, it would become a place central to the development of ancient Roman life and an example of the kind of society and culture building that could be accomplished if the removal of excess water could allow the development of the land.
According to Hopkins, the original design of the sewer was as an open-air channel and was built by the Etruscans (2007) , a people originally from the region north of Rome that includes modern day Tuscany. Hopkins suggests that the original channel brought together the fresh water of several streams and was dug through the space cleared for the Forum Romanum for more than 100 metres, bringing into question the original intention for the use of the water it provided (ibid.). An open-air channel dismisses the need to contain the stench of a sewer, while it would seem logical that an open public space like the Forum should have ready access to fresh water. From here the water gathered and was syphoned out to the Tiber River.
The construction of this drainage channel was important for the eventual spread of the settlement that originally began on the seven hills, overlooking the lowland below. The Tiber was prone to flooding each year, regularly inundating the lowland and making movement in Rome difficult. (ibid.) The ability of such a system to drain the floodwaters must have been evident, and this system allowed the conditions for the strong development of the city of Rome (Sura 2010), namely the availability of land free from flooding, easy movement between the settlements that had developed on the hills and therefore trade and communication between their inhabitants, and according to Sura, a decline in water-borne illnesses such as malaria and improved hygiene as a result of the channel's propensity to remove fecal matter. (ibid.) This makes the Cloaca Maxima great, not just in monumental terms, but in terms of allowing the conditions for social and cultural development as well. One could even argue that without the Cloaca Maxima there could have been no Roman Empire.
Over time, Roman engineers saw fit to add and extend sections, alter and repair broken down sections, resulting in what Hopkins has described as "...a patchwork of Roman building techniques." (2007) They paved over the open channel, closing in its flowing waters. As well, he goes on to describe how in the area of the Imperial fora (forums built during the eras of various emperors) "...canals exhibit archaic, mid-republican, Julian, Augustan, early Flavian and Domitianic masonries." (ibid.), emphasising the nature of this 'patchwork'. Hopkins suggests that the mid-republican section of the cloaca was built when the Basilica Aemilia was built over an older section. (ibid.) The channel was redirected around the building to enable its structural integrity. (ibid.) Two cloacae are reported to have run from the area of the Campus Martius, so named because of its propensity to flood, literally transforming into a marsh. These are also mid-republican and helped drain the area where the Pantheon and the Porticus Octavia would later be built. (ibid.) Republican sections of the cloaca also helped drain the area around the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Castor & Pollux, and along the Via Sacra before feeding into the main section near the Basilica Aemilia. (ibid.)
The scale of the work, in its time, was extremely significant for the message of power and prestige it could convey, as well as the social and cultural implications it would have for further development of the city. The work to begin construction was arduous. The masonry blocks used to line the structure were massive, making the structure itself monumental. Strabo tells us that the engineers "...have in some places left enough room for wagons loaded with hay to pass through them." (5.3) If we believe Pliny the Elder, its initial construction was as much a show of the power of Tarquinius Priscus within Rome as its monumental scale would show Roman power to be to outsiders. In using commoners to build the structure, he says that because "...the citizens were seeking to escape from their exhaustion by committing suicide wholesale, the king... crucified the bodies of all who had died by their own hands, leaving them to be gazed at by their fellow citizens and also torn to pieces by beasts and birds of prey." (Book 36) So, initially at least, the construction of the cloaca can be seen to have been a symbol of monarchical strength within Rome. Hopkins suggests that there were examples of such canals elsewhere, built by people that the Romans would have been in contact with. These people had not used monumental masonry blocks, showing therefore that the Romans did not need to. The cloaca could then be seen to have been constructed in such a way simply to demonstrate the power of Rome and its monarchy. (2007) By Republican times it could be seen as a testament to the strength of the Roman people and their ability to accomplish great feats of engineering as a people. Its practical advantage of draining water away from the Forum Romanum allowed the development of a vibrant city market with political and judicial functions that would also facilitate the social and cultural functions of the patron-client relationship. In other words, it would become a place central to the development of ancient Roman life and an example of the kind of society and culture building that could be accomplished if the removal of excess water could allow the development of the land.
A map showing the path of the original Cloaca Maxima, cutting through the Forum Romanum and emptying into the Tiber River from the Forum Boarium, near the Temple of Hercules. You'll notice in the diagram showing the dimensions of the vault, the use of the keystone at the top of the vault, which would lock down the subsequent stones on each side. This gave the vault tremendous strength. Image from: https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/slide-quiz-4/deck/10170045
The model shown here was created by Italo Gismondi in 1974. It shows Rome in the time of Constantine, so there are structures shown that didn't exist during the late Republic, such as the Coliseum in the foreground. The model gives an idea of the proximity of the Tiber River to the Forum and the path of the Cloaca Maxima. Note also the Circus Maximus on the left of the image. Image from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrjennings/sets/1352651/
Questions
1. What was the purpose for building the Cloaca Maxima? (1 paragraph)
2. How did its construction impact on the city of Rome? (2 paragraphs)
2. How did its construction impact on the city of Rome? (2 paragraphs)
sources
Hopkins, J.N.N. (2007) The Cloaca Maxima and the Monumental Manipulation of Water in Ancient Rome in The Waters of Rome, Volume 4
Pliny, Natural History, Book 36
Strabo, Geography, 5.3.8
Sura, A. (2010) The Cloaca Maxima: Draining Disease from Rome in Vertices
Pliny, Natural History, Book 36
Strabo, Geography, 5.3.8
Sura, A. (2010) The Cloaca Maxima: Draining Disease from Rome in Vertices