via sacra
THE Via Sacra, or Sacred Way, was the original main street of the ancient city. Leading from the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill to the Forum, it introduced those walking its length to significant religious sites such as the Temple of Vesta, the house of the Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest), the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and in the late Republic the Temple of the Divine Julius Caesar.
The Via Sacra led residents and travellers into the Forum, the main centre of business and governance, and must have confirmed the religious conviction of Roman society to any who entered by virtue of the proximity of these temples to its Forum entrance. The Sacred Way was also used to celebrate Roman triumphal marches that followed great military victories, the parade arriving in the Forum before finally proceeding to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline Hill. These marches constituted both civil ceremonies and religious rites, bestowing religious importance on the victory and the military commander in the service of Rome. During the Republican years only the Roman senate could grant a triumphal march, thus tying religious responsibility in with the senate and affirming its authority over the military. The Forum and the Capitoiline Hill were thus fitting destinations after marching through the Via Sacra.
The Via Sacra can be seen to help build the social and cultural importance of religion as well as government. This is shown by Plutarch in his description of Cicero's exposure of the Cataline conspiracy to kill him; "Then Cicero went forth and summoned the senate to the Temple of Jupiter Stator, which was situated at the beginning of the Via Sacra, as you go up to the Palatine Hill." (21.3) That Plutarch includes the Via Sacra in this description, together with the Temple of Jupiter, lends religious emphasis to Cicero's authority and the senatorial decision to expel Cataline and his fellow conspirators. They had tried to overthrow the Republic in 63 BCE. Prudentius, writing against paganism in the fourth century, recalled the religious importance of the Via Sacra to the ancient Romans;
The Via Sacra led residents and travellers into the Forum, the main centre of business and governance, and must have confirmed the religious conviction of Roman society to any who entered by virtue of the proximity of these temples to its Forum entrance. The Sacred Way was also used to celebrate Roman triumphal marches that followed great military victories, the parade arriving in the Forum before finally proceeding to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline Hill. These marches constituted both civil ceremonies and religious rites, bestowing religious importance on the victory and the military commander in the service of Rome. During the Republican years only the Roman senate could grant a triumphal march, thus tying religious responsibility in with the senate and affirming its authority over the military. The Forum and the Capitoiline Hill were thus fitting destinations after marching through the Via Sacra.
The Via Sacra can be seen to help build the social and cultural importance of religion as well as government. This is shown by Plutarch in his description of Cicero's exposure of the Cataline conspiracy to kill him; "Then Cicero went forth and summoned the senate to the Temple of Jupiter Stator, which was situated at the beginning of the Via Sacra, as you go up to the Palatine Hill." (21.3) That Plutarch includes the Via Sacra in this description, together with the Temple of Jupiter, lends religious emphasis to Cicero's authority and the senatorial decision to expel Cataline and his fellow conspirators. They had tried to overthrow the Republic in 63 BCE. Prudentius, writing against paganism in the fourth century, recalled the religious importance of the Via Sacra to the ancient Romans;
[In pagan families, a child absorbs idolatry from the cradle on.]
Later, leaving the house during festivals and games,
He stands in awe, gaping as the priests in laurel wreathes
Tend the temples of pagan gods on the lofty Capitol,
And the Sacred Way resounds with the lowing of cattle consigned
To sacrifice on the altar of Rome (she too gets blood
Like a goddess—even the name of a city has godhead here,
Where the temples of Rome and Venus rise to equal height,
And the incense meant for one is shared with its goddess twin);
Later, leaving the house during festivals and games,
He stands in awe, gaping as the priests in laurel wreathes
Tend the temples of pagan gods on the lofty Capitol,
And the Sacred Way resounds with the lowing of cattle consigned
To sacrifice on the altar of Rome (she too gets blood
Like a goddess—even the name of a city has godhead here,
Where the temples of Rome and Venus rise to equal height,
And the incense meant for one is shared with its goddess twin);
As well, Livy reports the Republican senator, Marcus Servilius, speaking on behalf of a victorious general so that a triumphal march may be given. Note in this example the way that religious importance of the Via Sacra is for a triumphal march, as well as the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill for successful military campaigns;
“When a consul or praetor, accompanied by lictors in military dress, sets out to his command and to war, he declares his vows on the Capitoline. When the war is successfully completed, the victor returns to the Capitoline in his triumph, bringing well-deserved gifts to these same gods. The sacrificial animals that go before him in triumph are an important part of the triumph and make it clear that the general gives thanks to the gods for the success of his actions done in the interests of Rome's well-being.”
This image shows the Via Sacra and Roman Forum in the Gismondi model. You can just see the bottom edge of the Coliseum at the top of the image. Near the top right of the Forum you can see a small, circular structure - the Temple of Vesta. To its left is the Temple of the Divine Julius. Image from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrjennings/sets/1352651/
questions
1. Describe the location of the Via Sacra. (1 paragraph)
2. Explain how the Via Sacra was used to reinforce the importance of religion, government and the military of the Roman Republic.
2. Explain how the Via Sacra was used to reinforce the importance of religion, government and the military of the Roman Republic.
sources
Livy, The History of Rome, 45.39.11-12
Plutarch, Parallel Lives - Life of Cicero, 16.3
Prudentius, Against Symmachus, 1.215-224
Plutarch, Parallel Lives - Life of Cicero, 16.3
Prudentius, Against Symmachus, 1.215-224
forum romanum
THE Forum Romanum was constructed between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills and served the basic function of providing a centre of religion, governance, law and commerce for the ancient Romans. In this respect it could be considered a kind of ancient town square. Vitruvius is unequivocal in his explanation of the shape and purpose of fora in general;
The size of the forum is to be proportioned to the population of the place, so that it be not too small to contain the numbers it should hold, nor have the appearance of being too large, from a want of numbers to occupy it. The width is obtained by assigning to it two-thirds of its length, which gives it an oblong form, and makes it convenient for the purpose of the [gladiatorial] shows.
Vitruvius, On Architecture, Book 5, Chapter 1
The Forum Romanum, however, should also be considered in the context of its location and the buildings it features. The Via Sacra leads into it at the Palatine Hill end, providing public access to numerous institutional buildings. The centralised presence of so many institutionally important buildings can be seen to have enhanced their importance to Roman society and culture, thus demonstrating the social and cultural importance of the Forum itself.
Religious functions were provided by temples of worship or sacrifice, such as the Temple of Vesta, Temple of Saturn, Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Temple of Concordia. The Regia, which was the place of residence of Rome's chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was located near the Temple of Vesta and parallel with the House of the Vestals, the custodians of the Temple they were named for. The suggestion of the importance of religious belief for the Romans is especially so when we consider the role of the Via Sacra in religious processions that would find their logical destination in the Forum. The magnificent temples a Roman would have found themselves surrounded by after having participated in such processions would have served to accentuate the significance of the religion itself. They would reinforce the importance of the belief to the community, and the Forum would help to facilitate this reinforcement. It should be noted as well, that the previous purpose of the space was for a necropolis, perhaps suggesting the origin of its importance as a sacred place of spiritual importance.
Republican Romans were able to witness and participate in functions of government in the Forum, facilitated by the centralised location of buildings such as the Curia, Comitium and Rostra. The senate would meet at the Curia to debate matters of state. The Comitium was a place where the Plebian Assembly, or assembly of the people, was held to allow the people a role in governing the state and the judiciary; they could help pass laws, elect magistrates and hear legal cases. At the Rostra, or public speaking platform, concerned citizens could speak to the people present in the Forum on a range of matters. The Tabularium, where public records were kept, also had its home in the Forum overlooked by the Capitoline Hill and the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Again, as with the religious buildings of Rome found in the Forum, the centralised location of these vehicles of government was able to construct their social and cultural importance for ancient Romans, and therefore the importance of the Forum itself as a public space.
Finally, the presence in the Forum of judicial buildings such as the Basilica Aemilia and the Basilica Julia was able to enhance the importance of the judicial system in ancient Roman life. These basilica housed law courts, as well as small shops called tabernae, banks and some government offices, perhaps reinforcing notions of fairness in business and governance as well.
The function of the Forum, then, was clearly to provide a place for Romans to conduct their everyday affairs. As well, it could be seen as a place that united the Roman people and reinforced a set of social and cultural values through the symbolism of its structures and location in the vicinity of the two primary hills of Rome, the Capitoline and the Palatine, as well as the Via Sacra. It enabled the patron-client relationship to thrive by creating a place where both the patrician and plebian classes could go to conduct their daily business. The Roman playwright, Plautus, has left in his comedy, Curculio, an interesting description of the affairs of Romans at the Forum that goes some way towards demystifying the romantic ideal of what the Forum represents in terms of everyday life in Republican Rome;
The size of the forum is to be proportioned to the population of the place, so that it be not too small to contain the numbers it should hold, nor have the appearance of being too large, from a want of numbers to occupy it. The width is obtained by assigning to it two-thirds of its length, which gives it an oblong form, and makes it convenient for the purpose of the [gladiatorial] shows.
Vitruvius, On Architecture, Book 5, Chapter 1
The Forum Romanum, however, should also be considered in the context of its location and the buildings it features. The Via Sacra leads into it at the Palatine Hill end, providing public access to numerous institutional buildings. The centralised presence of so many institutionally important buildings can be seen to have enhanced their importance to Roman society and culture, thus demonstrating the social and cultural importance of the Forum itself.
Religious functions were provided by temples of worship or sacrifice, such as the Temple of Vesta, Temple of Saturn, Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Temple of Concordia. The Regia, which was the place of residence of Rome's chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was located near the Temple of Vesta and parallel with the House of the Vestals, the custodians of the Temple they were named for. The suggestion of the importance of religious belief for the Romans is especially so when we consider the role of the Via Sacra in religious processions that would find their logical destination in the Forum. The magnificent temples a Roman would have found themselves surrounded by after having participated in such processions would have served to accentuate the significance of the religion itself. They would reinforce the importance of the belief to the community, and the Forum would help to facilitate this reinforcement. It should be noted as well, that the previous purpose of the space was for a necropolis, perhaps suggesting the origin of its importance as a sacred place of spiritual importance.
Republican Romans were able to witness and participate in functions of government in the Forum, facilitated by the centralised location of buildings such as the Curia, Comitium and Rostra. The senate would meet at the Curia to debate matters of state. The Comitium was a place where the Plebian Assembly, or assembly of the people, was held to allow the people a role in governing the state and the judiciary; they could help pass laws, elect magistrates and hear legal cases. At the Rostra, or public speaking platform, concerned citizens could speak to the people present in the Forum on a range of matters. The Tabularium, where public records were kept, also had its home in the Forum overlooked by the Capitoline Hill and the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Again, as with the religious buildings of Rome found in the Forum, the centralised location of these vehicles of government was able to construct their social and cultural importance for ancient Romans, and therefore the importance of the Forum itself as a public space.
Finally, the presence in the Forum of judicial buildings such as the Basilica Aemilia and the Basilica Julia was able to enhance the importance of the judicial system in ancient Roman life. These basilica housed law courts, as well as small shops called tabernae, banks and some government offices, perhaps reinforcing notions of fairness in business and governance as well.
The function of the Forum, then, was clearly to provide a place for Romans to conduct their everyday affairs. As well, it could be seen as a place that united the Roman people and reinforced a set of social and cultural values through the symbolism of its structures and location in the vicinity of the two primary hills of Rome, the Capitoline and the Palatine, as well as the Via Sacra. It enabled the patron-client relationship to thrive by creating a place where both the patrician and plebian classes could go to conduct their daily business. The Roman playwright, Plautus, has left in his comedy, Curculio, an interesting description of the affairs of Romans at the Forum that goes some way towards demystifying the romantic ideal of what the Forum represents in terms of everyday life in Republican Rome;
I'll show you where you'll find each sort of man in town,
To save you the trouble of tracking them down, be it men of virtue
You seek, or men of vice, men with and without morals.
If you need a man to perjure an oath, the Comitium's the place;
But for liars and braggarts, go to the shrine of Venus Cloacina.
Wealthy husbands incautious with cash haunt the Basilica—
There too the busiest hookers and the pimps who strike the deal.
Members of the dinner clubs you'll find in the Fish-market.
Gentlemen stroll at the end of the Forum, men of money;
In the center, near the Canal, linger the pure pretenders.
Above the Lacus Curtius the slanderers gather, bold
Malicious men who brazenly accuse the innocent
But who themselves make truer targets for their charges.
At the Old Shops are those who lend or borrow money,
And others behind the Temple of Castor—trust them at your peril.
On Tuscan Way, more hookers, of either sex;
On the Velabrum, bakers, butchers, and prognosticators,
And swindlers, or those who rent the stalls for swindlers' work.
Plautus, Curculio 467-82
To save you the trouble of tracking them down, be it men of virtue
You seek, or men of vice, men with and without morals.
If you need a man to perjure an oath, the Comitium's the place;
But for liars and braggarts, go to the shrine of Venus Cloacina.
Wealthy husbands incautious with cash haunt the Basilica—
There too the busiest hookers and the pimps who strike the deal.
Members of the dinner clubs you'll find in the Fish-market.
Gentlemen stroll at the end of the Forum, men of money;
In the center, near the Canal, linger the pure pretenders.
Above the Lacus Curtius the slanderers gather, bold
Malicious men who brazenly accuse the innocent
But who themselves make truer targets for their charges.
At the Old Shops are those who lend or borrow money,
And others behind the Temple of Castor—trust them at your peril.
On Tuscan Way, more hookers, of either sex;
On the Velabrum, bakers, butchers, and prognosticators,
And swindlers, or those who rent the stalls for swindlers' work.
Plautus, Curculio 467-82
If we believe Plautus's description, the Forum was also the place to find liars, braggarts, slanderers, malicious men, hookers, pimps and swindlers. At the very least, the Forum and the buildings it features can be seen to reflect some composition of the workforce of ancient Romans. We know that there are places here that needed particular roles fulfilled; the basilicas required magistrates, bankers and shopkeepers, for instance. Less obvious are the assumptions we can draw about the influence of the grandeur and purpose of the structures in the Forum, and their centralised location, on the social and cultural values of its people.
questions
1. Explain the significance of the Forum Romanum. (2 paragraphs)
sources
Becker, J.A. Forum Romanum, from Khan Academy. Retrieved, July 2015, from: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-rome/a/forum-romanum-the-roman-forum
Plautus, Curculio, 467 - 82
Vitruvius, On Architecture, 5.1
Plautus, Curculio, 467 - 82
Vitruvius, On Architecture, 5.1